William Morris Wallpapers of the 1860s and 1870s

Illustration: William Morris. Daisy wallpaper, 1864.

William Morris's first wallpaper designs started to appear in the 1860s. They came as a slightly later edition to the textile designs. Morris, himself was not a big fan of wallpaper for interiors. He much preferred the idea of using hung textile work, such as tapestry or heavy fabrics framed as panels, which he saw as more traditional for interiors than the fairly recent wallpaper industry. Another reason was the difficulty in achieving a good and faithful reproduction of initial design work. Morris was a definite perfectionist and was not prepared to take on a medium if the results were to be less than perfect.

However, he was aware of the strong Victorian interest in wallpaper for financial and hygienic reasons, and though not always a pragmatist, he could usually be encouraged to when it concerned Morris & Co. It was felt increasingly in the 1860s and 1870s, that the home should be the centre of family life, but also the centre of a healthy family life. Wallpaper was seen as a much cleaner and perhaps more importantly, cheaper alternative to heavy dust laden tapestries and wall hangings.

Illustration: William Morris. Pomegranate wallpaper, 1866.

Morris's first commercial wallpaper designs, as can be seen in the first two illustrations shown in this article, Daisy and Pomegranate, were very much a case of stamped motifs on a fairly simple and plain background. Some of the motifs were actually reproduced from Morris's medieval style tapestry work, usually from incidental backgrounds or lower foregrounds where they were used to fill in spaces around the more important human figures. Incidentally, most of the figures in Morris's tapestries were produced by Edward Burne-Jones, while the backgrounds were very often Morris's own.

Both Daisy and Pomegranate were produced in the mid-1860s and reflect very much the simplicity of much of Morris's early textile work. In fact, many of the designs initially produced for textiles did end up as wallpaper patterns, with very few changes in the design, if any.

Today many would see this as a great opportunity to co-ordinate both textile and wallpaper so that a room would contain only one design throughout. However, Victorians would have been puzzled by this notion and would have seen it as a clear lack of imagination. They were more than happy to have up to half a dozen different designs within the same room, so there was little problem of the same Morris design in textile and wallpaper ending up next to each other.

Illustration: William Morris. Larkspar wallpaper, 1872.

By the 1870s Morris wallpaper design work had become much more accomplished,, confident and therefore much more complex. There is very little, if any plain background to be seen, and whereas the earlier examples were largely independently stamped on to a surface, the later examples are clearly intertwined with each other, making it difficult to see any obvious motifs.

The last three designs shown, Larkspar, Pimpernel and Chrysanthemum were all produced in the 1870s. They clearly show the confidence in the design work and the medium, and are therefore much more fluid and free form than the earlier, more tentative work of the 1860s.

Illustration: William Morris. Pimpernel wallpaper, 1876.

It would be tempting to see some of the fluid and meandering flower stems, rich, full flowers and languid leaves, as an indication of the roots of Art Nouveau. While there is a certain similarity in some of Morris work, it is also firmly rooted within both the British Arts & Craft movement and the styles and fashions of the mid-Victorian design world.

What makes Morris wallpaper design work stand out from others of the same era is the intensity of the compositions. There is a real observational passion for the natural world that is missing from so much of Victorian floral derived work. To Morris, these designs could not just be interpreted as 'pretty', or 'attractive', they were much more. They were indeed part of his life's work and passion. They were a record of the British traditional rural landscape, one of nature and human in a harmonic symbiosis. The intertwining of much of his floral work could be interpreted as a framework in which we are all a part, which is one of the reasons that Morris disliked geometry as a design tool, as he interpreted it as a man-made system for trying to quantify the natural world, rather than allowing the natural world to quantify itself.

Illustration: William Morris. Chrysanthemum wallpaper, 1877.

Of Morris's numerous passions and interests and his considerable and varied output of work, he will probably be commonly remembered for his nature based design work. These wallpapers of the 1860s and 1870s reflect an achievement, in not only wallpaper design but alsodesign in general, that has rarely been matched or bested.

Further reading links:
William Morris: Patterns & Designs (International Design Library)
Designs of William Morris (Phaidon Miniature Editions)
William Morris Full-Color Patterns and Designs (Pictorial Archives)
William Morris and the Arts and Crafts Home
William Morris and Morris & Co.
V&A Pattern: William Morris (Hardcover with CD)
News from Nowhere and Other Writings (Penguin Classics)
The well at the world's end, a tale
William Morris (Temporis)
William Morris Tree of Life 20"x20"
William Morris on Art and Socialism
William Morris: A Life for Our Time
The Essential William Morris Anthology (12 books)
V&A Pattern: William Morris: (Hardcover with CD)
William Morris and Morris & Co
"Trellis" Wallpaper Design, 1864 Giclee Poster Print by William Morris, 36x48 

Gustav Stickley's Craftsman Magazine

Illustration: The Craftsman magazine cover, January 1904.

The first issue of Gustav Stickley's The Craftsman magazine was produced in 1901. From its inception it was meant to be seen as a vehicle to promote the philosophy of the English Arts & Crafts movement across North America. This can be seen quite clearly with its first issue, which was dedicated entirely to the recently deceased William Morris, while the second issue was dedicated to the also recently deceased John Ruskin.

However, as the magazine matured it gradually took on a more native, home-grown element, promoting the by now burgeoning American Arts & Crafts movement. The magazine took the basic ideas behind the English Arts & Crafts philosophy and moulded them to suit an American environment.

The magazine promoted an all-encompassing simple life philosophy, which included in its remit, architecture, interior design and decoration, gardening and lifestyle. This largely home-grown idyll had elements of colonial reminiscences, so while the English movement tried to foster links with the English and European medieval period, the American tried to forge links with its own historical infancy. Of course, it must be admitted that most of the Arts & Crafts linkage with past eras was based largely on a fictitious nostalgia, but in the end that really is not that important. What is important is that the American Arts & Crafts movement which was a fairly broad grouping of elements from a number of disciplines including architecture, furniture, metal, ceramic and textile design, was making the first steps towards a recognition of American cultural uniqueness.

The gradual independence of the American Arts & Crafts movement from the European and particularly English movements, helped to foster the idea of America as a separate entity in its own right.

The Craftsman magazine by highlighting and encouraging the home-grown elements of the Arts & Crafts philosophy, helped to embolden the differences rather than the similarities between the two continents. Although the international aspect of the Arts & Crafts movement was tangible and many of the different national groups around the world did share a similar philosophy, the great strength of the Arts & Crafts movement was that it was adaptable to any number of native customs and cultures. It did much to bolster a reconnection that those cultures had with their own native history and traditions, which were then transmitted into contemporary architecture, design and craft. 

The Craftsman magazine ceased publication in 1916. The impending threat of American involvement in the First World War and the general disruption of markets and finances caused by that war put an end to the magazine. However, during its fifteen years of publication it had become the most read magazine of its type across North America and had helped to foster a dynamism within American mediums like architecture, interior decoration, furniture, metalwork and ceramics, which was to long outlive its short publication run.

Further reading links:
Gustav Stickley: Craftsman Home
Stickley's Craftsman Homes
Gustav Stickley's Craftsman Homes and Bungalows
Craftsman Bungalows: 59 Homes from "The Craftsman"
More Craftsman Homes
Making Authentic Craftsman Furniture: Instructions and Plans for 62 Projects (Dover books on woodworking & carving)
Gustav Stickley's Craftsman Farms: A Pictorial History
Gustav Stickley, the Craftsman
Craftsman Houses: The 1913 Catalog
Craftsman Furnishings For The Home
Stickley Style: Arts and Crafts Homes in the Craftsman Tradition
Gustav Stickley and the American Arts & Crafts Movement (Dallas Museum of Art Publications) 

Alfred Vaino Blomstedt and Rug Design

Illustration: A V Blomstedt. Horses rug, 1900.

At the turn of the twentieth century, there were a number of artists in Finland who produced both contemporary and traditionally sourced tapestry and rug design work; among these were Akseli Gallen-Kallela, Timo Sarpaneva and Alfred Vaino Blomstedt.

Blomstedt was a trained fine artist who had studied both in Finland and in Paris, but he was also an illustrator, designer and textile artist. His work within textiles was chiefly concentrated within the medium of tapestry production, though he did produce a number of rug designs as well.

Rug production was considered part of the traditional culture of Finland and was resuscitated within the Finnish Arts & Crafts movement. Finland did not gain its independence from Russia until the end of the First World War. Therefore, any highlighting of traditional skills was considered patriotic within Finland, but potentially dangerous political stirring within the Russian Empire as a whole.

The Friends of Finnish Handicraft, in which Blomstedt served as artistic director from 1900 onwards, was intimately involved in the Finnish rediscovery of their traditional culture through native crafts. Admittedly, not all rug production within Finland could be considered authentic to old traditions, but the romantic ideal of a separate Finnish culture from that of Russia, appealed to many within Finnish society and a number were more than happy to buy into the traditions, whether real or partially imaginary.

Although Blomstedt is more recognised today for his Symbolist inspired fine art work, the output he achieved in tapestry and rug design, cannot be dismissed. Working through the Friends of Finnish Handicraft with numerous other artists, designers and crafts people, Blomstedt helped to put Finnish self-determination on the agenda, and although considered an integral part of the Russian Empire, the Finns were able to mould a separate identity for themselves that put them in stead when they did eventually win their independence.

Further reading links:
The golden age: Finnish art, 1850 to 1907
Bringing Art to Life: Turn-of-the-Century Finnish Artists' Homes
Finnish design 1875-1975: 100 years of Finnish industrial design : Finnish Society of Crafts and Design 1875-1975
Scandinavian Design (Taschen 25)
Finland Living Design
Finnish Arts
Finnish Summer Houses
Finnish Design: Facts and Fancy
Kalevala Koru: Ancient Finnish design
Finland: Nature, Design, Architecture
THE LANGUAGE OF WOOD; Wood in Finnish Sculpture, Design and Architecture 

The Studio Magazine

Illustration: The Studio magazine, 1893.

The Studio Magazine was founded in Britain in 1893 by Charles Holme as an informative monthly periodical on contemporary fine and decorative art.

The Studio always had an extensive readership that included much of the European and North American art and design population in particular, whether through the educational establishment, professional careerists or interested amateurs. It initially started by championing a number of contemporary art and design movements. It was a firm believer in the Arts & Crafts philosophy as well as the ideals of the Art Nouveau movement, two styles that were not always happy being in each other's company, though shared more than they often cared to know.

The Studio produced a number of special features whereby an issue would be entirely devoted to a specific subject. For example, a 1901 issue entitled Modern British Domestic Architecture and Decoration featured Charles Rennie Mackintosh and the Glasgow School of designers. The publicity generated by the magazine helped to familiarise the Glasgow movement throughout Europe, but particularly within Austria and Germany where subscription to The Studio had always been relatively high.

The magazine did much to help establish Arts & Crafts organisations within Europe. It was a particular lifeline for many of the subject nations, such as Finland, Norway and Poland, which had no legitimate political representation apart from articles published within magazines like The Studio, which highlighted their own legitimate cultural heritage and contemporary outlook. It is perhaps hard to appreciate today what an impact The Studio magazine must have had on large sections of the art and design world, particularly within its first couple of decades of publication. It was a lifeline to many who had no other localised information or outlet to the contemporary world of design and decoration. It helped to widen both interest and understanding of the major contemporary art and design movements of the twentieth century in both Europe and North America. In 1911 for example, The Studio set aside a whole issue to Peasant Art in Austria and Hungary, which helped to expand the knowledge of the outside world to the many cultures that made up the patchwork quilt that was the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

The Studio also highlighted and helped to promote a number of artists, designers and decorative styles, throughout its life. It championed Aubrey Beardsley and commissioned the artist to produce the first cover of the magazine in 1893. It also had regular features promoting anything from nineteenth century Japanese prints to North American Studio pottery.

From 1906 onwards, the magazine published an annual summary of all the best in contemporary architecture, interior design and decoration. This annual summary went on until the last publication in 1980. The Decorative Art annual, or Decorative Art in Modern Interiors as it was renamed in the mid-1960s, championed all the major design movements of the twentieth century, from Art Nouveau, through to Art Deco, Modernism and Post War design. These annuals are now published as decade themed books by Taschen and are listed with links to Amazon in the Reference links section below.

Further reading links:
Decorative Arts 1900s & 1910s (Varia)
Decorative Arts 1920s (Varia)
Decorative Arts 1930s & 1940s (Varia)
Decorative Art 1950s
Decorative Art 1960s
Decorative Art 1970s
The Studio. An Illustrated Magazine of Fine & Applied Art. 1900: Volume 18 

The Publications of Christopher Dresser

Illustration: Christopher Dresser. Decorative example from Studies in Design, 1876.

Christopher Dresser as well as being an innovative and often ground-breaking designer and critic, is probably just as well known today for a series of books he wrote and published, starting in his early twenties and stretching throughout his career.

The titles, mostly dealing with decorative and ornamental design, tended to correspond with his frequent lecture tours throughout the UK during the latter half of the nineteenth century and were often used to publicise not so much his career, but his strong belief in the benefits of fundamental design reform in Britain.

Illustration: Christopher Dresser. Decorative example from Studies in Design, 1876.

In 1857, he wrote a series of six articles entitled Botany as Adapted to the Arts and Art-Manufacture that appeared in the prestigious British Art Journal magazine. These articles were the start of a highly successful and influential writing career.

By 1862 when he published the Art of Decorative Design, his written work had become more like a manifesto in its character, than an observational exercise. Dresser had never intended to merely sit back and dispassionately comment on contemporary and historical decorative styles without any form of engagement. He was a born reformer and had a number of fundamental and wide-ranging issues with Britain's often-difficult relationship between manufacturing and design.

Illustration: Christopher Dresser, Decorative example from Studies in Design, 1876.

A number of volumes in a largely educational tone appeared in the next few years, one of which Principles of Decorative Design published in 1873, had originally appeared as a series of articles in the monthly Technical Educator magazine.

Dresser was by no means unusual in producing educational books, articles and lectures dealing with decoration and design. There was a genuine interest in expanding the educational knowledge of the educational establishment, industry and indeed that of the general public. Both student and professional designers were encouraged to concentrate on all aspects of design thinking in order to try to produce mass produced work that could be seen as both rational and functional, rather than that of decoration and flippancy for its own sake. As far as the public were concerned, it was thought that a consumer with at least a rudimentary knowledge of good design techniques would be better placed to make wise decisions when purchasing goods. This, it was hoped, would pressurise manufacturers and retailers into producing consumer goods that were both better styled and better manufactured.

Illustration: Christopher Dresser. Decorative example from Studies in Design, 1876.

Probably Dresser's most famous and successful book was Studies in Design published between 1874 and 1876 from which these illustrations are taken. Originally published in twenty parts, Dresser himself felt that this title was his most prestigious publication. He summed up his intention with this particular publication, by explaining that the book was "to bring about a better style of decoration for our houses", though this explanation could equally apply to many of the titles published by him throughout his career.

After the publication of Studies in Design Dresser's ideas about design, decoration and manufacturing were to change direction fundamentally when in 1876 he made his first trip to Japan. Dresser had been dealing in Japanese goods for a number of years and was well aware of Japanese styles of decoration and ornamentation, as can be seen in the images shown here from his Studies in Design. However, it was the four months that Dresser stayed in Japan, travelling widely, visiting and observing every aspect of Japanese life, which changed his thinking on fundamental aspects of both decoration and design.

Illustration: Christopher Dresser. Decorative example from Studies in Design, 1876.

Dresser began to lecture and write on subjects that dealt with the use of materials and the simplicity of form. His trip to Japan put in place ideas about form and function that were to lead inevitably towards the twentieth century's mantra of  form follows function, a concept that was to be at the very core of Modernism.

In the 1880s, Dresser published a series of books that dealt with Japan and contemporary ideas on decoration and ornamentation. In 1882, he published Japan, its Architecture, Art and Art Manufactures which did much to popularise, not only Japanese styles of decoration, but more importantly, the fundamental ideas that lay behind Japanese ideas on design and the manufacturing of consumer goods.

Dresser is often classed today as a pioneer of Modernism through his work as a designer. However, he was also a great educator who believed that to progress within design you needed to bring the general population along with you, and this could only be done through education. His books helped many to understand the design and manufacturing ideals of the nineteenth century, but also helped to prepare many for the coming century where new ideas about the use of materials, form, style and function were to change design dramatically and fundamentally from all that had gone before.

Further reading links:
Christopher Dresser : A Pioneer of Modern Design
Dresser's Victorian Ornamentation: 150 Designs (Dover Pictorial Archive Series)
Shock of the Old: Christopher Dresser's Design Revolution
Christopher Dresser: A Design Revolution
Christopher Dresser
Christopher Dresser 1834-1904
Pomegranate Christopher Dresser Standard Boxed Note Card Set (Pack of 2)
Studies in Design
Alessi Christopher Dresser Tray
christopher dresser oil & vinegar set by alessi
Japan : its architecture, art, and art manufactures (1882)
christopher dresser cheese cellar by alessi
Principles of Victorian Decorative Design
Pomegranate Dresser Design Square Embossed Boxed Note Card Set (Pack of 2)
christopher dresser small footed bowl by alessi
Tea-Service with Gilt Interiors, Manufactured by James Dixon & Sons, 1880 (Electro-Plated Silver) Giclee Poster Print by Christopher Dresser, 18x24
Language of Ornament : Style in the Decorative Arts
A Fine Clutha Solifleur Vase Giclee Poster Print by Christopher Dresser, 18x24