Owen Jones and Mexican Ornament

Illustration: Mexican Ornament from Owen Jones The Grammar of Ornament, 1856.

Perhaps one of the seemingly oddest incorporations in Owen Jones The Grammar of Ornament published in 1856 was that of Mexican ornament. Interestingly, but perhaps puzzlingly, Jones placed his illustrations towards what he called Mexican ornament within the chapter dealing with Greek ornament. It seems as if Jones had little or no real concrete information regarding Mexican decorative effects and techniques and had trouble finding a fitting place in his book for the subject. That he felt the need to include any information at all on the subject is credit to Jones.

The illustrations which only take up one black and white page in Jones The Grammar of Ornament, where all other decorative cultural work was produced in glorious and luxurious colour, was derived from illustrations seen on various ceramic works found at the British Museum. Jones placed this page within the chapter dealing with Greek ornamentation because he felt that there were certain similarities between the patternwork of the two cultures. 

This in no way implies that Jones at any time dealt with the possibility that Mexican or Greek cultures were ever in contact with each other. Theories such as this and many more that were even less conceivable were rife throughout the Victorian era and were indeed still being put forward as viable explanations well into the twentieth century. Jones found it interesting that different cultures could arrive at some similar forms of decoration and ornamentation. That he thought it was either purely coincidence or perhaps even part of a more basic human understanding of the rules of pattern and decoration, was the position that Jones took towards the origins of most of the forms of decoration that he came across around the planet, admittedly mostly seen within the confines of London museums.

It would appear that Jones would have been keen to have explored and expanded a section on Mexican ornament, even though at the time there was some confusion in Europe as to what was actually meant by Mexican. Work was still very much in progress towards the disentangling of all the numerous peoples, history and empires of Central America. Jones would have been aware of the American explorer John Stephens and the British illustrator Frederick Catherwood and the books published in the early 1840s concerning their explorations in Mexico. Why Jones did not include and incorporate some of the illustrations and elements of these books is unclear. It may well have been a simple matter of copyright, or the fact that there was clearly so little information available in which Jones felt that he could place any critical trust. Perhaps Jones felt he was on potentially unsure ground concerning a culture, and indeed more a patchwork of cultures, that Europe at the time still knew little if anything of substance concerning this area of the planet and the history of its decoration and ornament.

Whatever the reason, by including at least an element concerning the decorative and ornamental history of Central America, Jones was placing an emphasis, however small, on an area of the world that was to eventually significantly expand the vocabulary of human decorative arts.

Further reading links:
Grammar of Ornament: A Monumental Work of Art
Incidents of Travel in Yucatan, Vols. I and II
Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan (Volume 2)
Aztec and Mexican Indian Desig (International Design Library)
The Pre-Columbian Painting Murals of the Mesoamerica: Murals of the Mesoamerica
Aztec Art
Aztec Designs (Design Library)
The Art of Mesoamerica: From Olmec to Aztec (World of Art)
The Art & Architecture of the Aztec & Maya: An illustrated encyclopedia of the buildings, sculptures and art of the peoples of Mesoamerica, with over ... of ancient Mexico and central America
The Codex Borgia: A Full-Color Restoration of the Ancient Mexican Manuscript
Design Motifs of Ancient Mexico CD-ROM and Book (Dover Electronic Clip Art)
Pre-Columbian Art
Arts and Crafts of the Aztecs and Maya (Arts & Crafts of the Ancient World)
Art of Aztec Mexico: Treasures of Tenochtitlan
Maya Art and Architecture (World of Art)
Courtly Art of the Ancient Maya
Art of the Maya Scribe
Painting the Maya Universe: Royal Ceramics of the Classic Period (Duke University Museum of Art)

The Basketry skills of the Kali'na

Illustration: Group of Kali'na, 1892.

The Kali'na live along the southern shores of the Caribbean and have homes that stretch from Venezuela to Guyane. They are considered to be small minorities in each of the modern countries that they now find themselves being citizens of. However, before the arrival of Europeans they dominated the area between the mouths of the Amazon and Orinoco rivers. The Kali'na have lived in the vicinity of the two South American rivers for at least two millennia and have undoubtedly been in the area for much longer than the material evidence so far shows.

Self-sufficiency has always been an important element of the culture of the Kali'na and, as far as possible; all aspects of life could be procured from their immediate environment. Woven craft products were produced from raw materials found within the local environment and ranged from large to small scale, with shelters being the most immediate example. However, it is the smaller domestic ware that shows most originality and diversity, with numerous finely woven baskets and bags produced for both long-term storage and that of the more immediate foraging bags.

Illustration: Kali'na village, 1839.

Basketry was always an important and inherent part of learnt craft skills and was always part of the practical necessities of life. However, as with all human cultures, the decorative arts were never far behind those practical necessities. Embellishment and the expansion of the ordinary came in many forms. In Kali'na basketry, it was shown by using differently coloured and toned raw materials to produce outwardly patterned effects. However, there was also the much subtler approach of using patterned weave. Even though the raw weaving material may be the same tone and colour and therefore immediately indistinguishable, the weave pattern would break up, enhance and vary the weave giving both a subtle decorative pattern and texture to the woven basket or bag.

Illustration: Examples of Kali'na basketry, 1839.

There is an immediacy and connectedness with the proximity of the surrounding world that links the Kali'na with a sense of intimately belonging to that world, whether through ancestral roots or perhaps the use of surrounding raw materials that they would have seen as being crucial to both their survival and way of life. In some respects the culture of the Kali'na was their surrounding environment. The craft skills they passed on through the generations enhanced and supported the life of the community and allowed them to expand and grow within their immediate environment.

Illustration: Kali'na man, 1892.

It is important to remember that there are no levels or tiers separating human cultures. Europeans observed and judged people like the Kali'na and often these took two familiar forms. They could either be seen as primitive savages lacking in sophistication and accomplishments, or they could be seen as noble savages, still unsophisticated and lacking European accomplishments, but living a life of unsophisticated purity. Either way the European example of cultural life would be seen as the higher form.

Illustration: Examples of Kali'na weaponry and tools, 1839.

Of course, these European views and judgements were grossly inaccurate and misinformed, often purposely. The Kali'na were as sophisticated and accomplished as any European, as were their decorative and craft arts which flourished, expanded and reflected both the individual crafts person and that of the community. Indeed, craft skills were at times beyond the level achieved by Europeans.

Illustration: Kali'na youth, 1892.

Basketry by its very nature is a practical result of the needs of the community linked with the availability of the surrounding environment. The embellishment of that practical necessity often says much more about a culture and a community than any number of European judgements and fantasies about simple people and savages.

Further reading links:
Na'na Kali'na: Une histoire des Kali'na en Guyane (French Edition)
La Guyane française au temps de l'esclavage, de l'or et de la francisation
Histoire de la Guyane contemporaine, 1940-1982: Les mutations economiques, sociales et politiques (French Edition)
Histoire de la societe guyanaise: Les annees cruciales, 1848-1946 (Etudes et documents / Centre guyanais d'etudes et de recherches) (French Edition)
La Guyane francaise, de la colonisation a la departementalisation: La formation de la societe creole guyanaise (French Edition)
Demographics of Suriname: Ethnic Groups in Suriname, Arawak, Non-Resident Indian and Person of Indian Origin, Saramaka, Maroon, Kali'na People
Society of French Guiana: Ethnic Groups in French Guiana, Religion in French Guiana, Kali'na People, Palikur, Wayampi 

Sandra Woock and the Function of Movement

Illustration: Sandra Woock. Backspin.

The textile artwork produced by Sandra Woock is very much open-ended as far as experience and interpretation are concerned. The artist seems intent on both personal observation and understanding originating within the individual, rather than that of the artist.

Although much of the creative interpretation and analysis of artwork is subjective, many artists do try to limit, or at least set some forms of parameter around the interpretation and explanation of their work. Woock however, has decided to rely instead upon the freedom of the individual to evaluate her work as a personal experience. She seems more than happy for the individual to internalise specific feelings, ideas and conclusions that have been arrived at separately by each individual viewer of her work.

Illustration: Sandra Woock. Retro II.

However, there are some universal elements that help to explain some of the factors that link Woock's work. One of those factors is the overpowering imagery that portrays movement and a dynamic energy that seems so much a part of much of her work

The five textile pieces that I have chosen to illustrate this article with clearly show an almost industrial reaction to movement. The expressionist interpretation of the swirling cogs and gears of massive machinery play out their pre-designated pathways, producing nothing tangible or material in itself, but instead function purely for the process of movement itself.

Illustration: Sandra Woock. Spinout.

There is a technical balance found in these pieces that is rare in both fine art painting and more particularly that of textile art. Each textile fragment seems to have found its optimum place within the greater composition, adding its uniqueness to that of the whole. Just as in mechanical machinery, each cog will have its specific task and place within the greater machine, producing efficiency and harmony, so too with Woock's compositions.

There is almost a tangible feeling that there really is some form of physical momentum in the work along with the repetitive lullaby of the relentless but unfailingly constant exercise of the machine.

Illustration: Sandra Woock. Unchained.

These exercises in expressionist composition and styling are effortless in their message, but are equally incredibly complex in both format and composition. They may well give the impression of the internal workings of a giant complex and multi-pieced machine, but they are also the result of a complex and multi-creative artist.

Sandra Woock has exhibited her unique and distinctive style of textile work across the US. She has a comprehensive website where a much larger portfolio of her work can be seen. The link to her website can be found in the reference links section below.

Illustration: Sandra Woock. Pipedreams.

All images were provided with the kind permission of the artist.

Reference links:

Sandra Woock website

The Plight of Russian Lace Makers

Illustration: Russian lace makers 1911

Little was known in the rest of Europe and the world at large, about Russian lace making until the publication in 1870 of a book dealing with lace, but more specifically that of Russian lace makers. The book was written by Sophie Davydorf and was a rich and detailed history dealing with many different forms of lace making across the Russian Empire. However, probably the most important benefit of Davydorf's book was her highlighting of the plight of thousands of peasant women who were working slave hours and wages in the production of fine lace for wealthy Russians. Many of these wealthy Russians were either unaware, or chose to be unaware, of the conditions that had to be tolerated in order for their precious lace to be produced.

When serfdom, which was state slavery in all but name, was abolished across most of the Russian Empire in 1861, it was thought that the plight of many of Russia's poor would be for the better and that advances in both education and wages would solve many of the problems that had afflicted the serf class. However, there was little incentive to change the situation that had remained as a status quo for generations and life continued much as before.

Illustration: Lace work produced by the School of Princess Tenischeff 1911

One of the particular problems that craft women faced was that of middle-men, those who stood between craftswoman and the wealthy consumer. They kept the wages of the maker extremely low and the prices charged for the consumer, extremely high, thus making the lion's share of profit. Within the Russian craft industry, lace makers were treated particularly badly with a combination of inadequate wages and hard and long hours. Eyesight tended to fail quickly, but there were always new girls and young women to replace those who could not work as well anymore, and these were then cast aside with no payoff or hope for future employment.

Davydorf's book helped to highlight at least some of the more acute problems facing lace makers. With the wide success of her book liberal Russians and those with an interest in helping to relieve the plight of former serfs, galvanised themselves into producing practical help. These usually took the form of training schools, which were used to teach girls at least to a certain level of competence so that, in theory at least, they would be able to benefit from higher wages because of their increased skills base.

Illustration: Lace work produced by the School of Princess Tenischeff 1911

In 1873, the first exhibition of Russian lace was seen outside Russia. It was held in South Kensington, which at a future date was to become the Victoria and Albert Museum, in London. The exhibition was a great success and did much to publicise the skills of Russian lace makers across Europe. The exhibition also galvanised the Russian government and wealthy private individuals into sponsoring further national and international exhibitions dealing with many aspects of Russian crafts and was by no means limited to that of lace makers. The government also helped to spread the idea of schools across Russia that would teach and train future craft makers.

Schools were funded at all levels and were situated in both urban and rural locations, with some schools focusing on lace making, while others expanded into weaving and embroidery. As far as rural schools were concerned, there was the ulterior motive of trying to stem, or at least delay the movement of the rural working population to urban centres and factory work. It was considered by many that skilled craftwork would give the individual pride and a means of supporting themselves, as opposed to that of unskilled factory work.

Illustration: Russian lace tablecloth 1911

However, even with a great deal of enthusiasm the plight of many lace makers did not change dramatically and even though there was a lot of support both inside and outside the Russian Empire for the highly skilled work produced by lace makers, many were still at the mercy of ruthless middle men who preyed on countless craftswomen across Russia. Lace makers still had to deal with woefully inadequate wages and overly long hours.

The Revolution eventually put paid to lace making as a craft industry. With no aristocracy, there was little or no market for expensive and time-consuming work and the lace industry died. Through a combination of changing markets, fashion and the heightened ambitions of women after the Revolution, lace making seemed an unattractive prospect to many a Russian girl and was firmly placed in a past context with little to endear it to the modern world of the twentieth century.

Illustration: Russian lace coat of arms tea cloth 1911

Further reading links:
Lace of Russia: Vologda Lace (Masterpieces of Russian Folk Art)
Russian Lace Patterns
Russkoe pletenoe kruzhevo/Russian Pillow Lace
Russian Bobbin Lace 
Russian Lace Making
Russian Embroidery and Lace
Step by Step Russian Tape Lace
Gossamer Webs: The History and Techniques of Orenburg Lace Shawls
Angels in Russian Tape-Lace
RUSSIAN PILLOW LACE